ABSTRACT
We have analyzed BNT162b2 vaccine-induced immune responses in naive subjects and individuals recovered from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), both soon after (14 days) and later after (almost 8 months) vaccination. Plasma spike (S)-specific immunoglobulins peak after one vaccine shot in individuals recovered from COVID-19, while a second dose is needed in naive subjects, although the latter group shows reduced levels all along the analyzed period. Despite how the neutralization capacity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) mirrors this behavior early after vaccination, both groups show comparable neutralizing antibodies and S-specific B cell levels late post-vaccination. When studying cellular responses, naive individuals exhibit higher SARS-CoV-2-specific cytokine production, CD4+ T cell activation, and proliferation than do individuals recovered from COVID-19, with patent inverse correlations between humoral and cellular variables early post-vaccination. However, almost 8 months post-vaccination, SARS-CoV-2-specific responses are comparable between both groups. Our data indicate that a previous history of COVID-19 differentially determines the functional T and B cell-mediated responses to BNT162b2 vaccination over time.
Subject(s)
BNT162 Vaccine/immunology , COVID-19 Vaccines/immunology , COVID-19/immunology , Immunity, Cellular/immunology , Immunity, Humoral/immunology , Vaccines, Synthetic/immunology , mRNA Vaccines/immunology , Animals , Antibodies, Neutralizing/immunology , Antibodies, Viral/immunology , B-Lymphocytes/immunology , B-Lymphocytes/virology , COVID-19/virology , Chlorocebus aethiops , Humans , Leukocytes, Mononuclear/immunology , Leukocytes, Mononuclear/virology , Lymphocyte Activation/immunology , SARS-CoV-2/immunology , Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/immunology , Vaccination/methods , Vero CellsSubject(s)
COVID-19/diagnosis , Immune Checkpoint Proteins/blood , Biomarkers/analysis , Biomarkers/blood , COVID-19/blood , COVID-19/epidemiology , COVID-19/pathology , Case-Control Studies , Comorbidity , Cytokine Release Syndrome/blood , Cytokine Release Syndrome/diagnosis , Cytokine Release Syndrome/epidemiology , Cytokine Release Syndrome/etiology , Emergency Service, Hospital , Female , Humans , Immune Checkpoint Proteins/analysis , Male , Mortality , Patient Admission , Prognosis , SARS-CoV-2/immunology , Severity of Illness Index , Spain/epidemiologyABSTRACT
We report the disparate clinical progression of a couple infected by SARS-CoV-2 based on their immune checkpoint (IC) levels and immune cell distribution in blood from admission to exitus in patient 1 and from admission to discharge and recovery in patient 2. A detailed clinical follow-up accompanied by a longitudinal analysis of immune phenotypes and IC levels is shown. The continuous increase in the soluble IC ligand galectin-9 (Gal-9) and the increment in T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-containing 3 (TIM-3) protein in T cells in patient 1 suggests an activation of the Gal-9/TIM-3 axis and, subsequently, a potential cell exhaustion in this patient that did not occur in patient 2. Our data indicate that the Gal-9/TIM-3 axis could be a potential target in this clinical setting, along with a patent effector memory T-cell reduction.